Creep Behaviour of Materials

Creep Behaviour of Materials Chen Yi Ling   Objectives The objectives of the experiment are: To measure the creep deformation in lead and polypropylene at room temperature To determine the effect of stress on the creep deformation of lead and polypropylene To appreciate the difference in creep behaviour between these two classes of materials To be aware of creep as a design consideration Theory 2.1. Introduction Deformation under a certain applied load over a period of time at a particular temperature is defined as creep, and it limits the load carrying capacity among structual materials. When subjected to a stress greater or equal to its yield stress, the material deforms plastically. Alternately, when the stress is less than its yield stress, the material will deform elastically. However, when the material has to withstand stress at high temperature, permanent deformation will occur even if the stress is below the yield stress obtained from a tensile test. Under a constant stress, the strain vary as a function of time as shown in Figure 2.1.1. [1] The different stages of creep are: Primary Creep/Transient Creep Strain rate decreases with time and deformation becomes difficult as strain increases. (i.e. Strain Hardening) Secondary Creep/Steady Creep Strain rate is constant The occurrence is due to the balance between strain hardening and strain softening (Structure Recovery) Tertiary Creep/Approaching Rupture Strain rate increases with time and the material is fractured. Increase in creep rate is due to the increasing number of damages such as cavities, cracks and necking. The damaging phenomena reduce the cross-sectional area, which increase the applied stress when placed under constant load. Viscoelastic materials such as polymers and metals are susceptible to creep. When subjected to a sudden force, the response of a polymeric material can be detected using the Kelvin-Voigt model (Figure 2.1.2) Viscoelastic materials experience an increase in strain with time when subjected to a constant stress, this is termed as viscoelastic creep. At t0 (Figure 2.1.3), viscoelastic material is able to maintain for a significant long period of time when loaded with a constant stress. The material eventually fails when it responds to the stress with an increasing strain. In contrast, when the stress is maintained for a shorter period of time, the material experience an initial strain until t1 in which the stress is relieved. The strain then immediately decrease gradually to a residual strain. [3] In this experiment, we will study the creep behaviour of a low-melting point metal (Lead, Pb) and a polymer (Polypropylene, PP) at room temperature. 2.2. Creep in Metals Creep can be observed in all metals if its operating temperature exceeds 0.3 to 0.5Tm [5] (Tm = Absolute Melting Temperature) (Figure 2.2.1) Creep strain (ÃŽ µ) depends on several variables, the most important variables are stress (ÏÆ') and temperature (T). Using stress and temperature, the creep rate () can be defined as: (Equation 2.2.1) Where, A = Constant n = Stress Exponent E = Activation energy for creep R = Universal gas constant Creep rate () increase as stress and temperature increase, hence Equation 2.2.1 can be redefined as: (Equation 2.2.2) Whereby n is the slope of vs lnA at constant temperature. 2.3. Creep in Polymers The creep in polymers is almost similar to the creep in metal as it is depends on stress and temperature, with a few exceptions. Comparing Figure 2.2.1 and Figure 2.3.1, the two graphs look similar except that Figure 2.3.1 has a recovery phase, which is termed as the reversal of creep. Possessing viscoelastic properties, the behavior of the material can be predicted using the Kelvin-Voigt model (Figure 2.1.2) as mentioned earlier, and hence, it will be used in this experiment. Equation 2.3.1 shows the relationship between the creep strain (ÃŽ µ) and time under constant stress: (Equation 2.3.1) Where and are the constant of the spring and dashpot respectively (Figure 2.1.2) On the other hand, Equation 2.3.2 shows the creep strain in relation to time: (Equation 2.3.2) Where is a constant. The data obtained can be plotted into an isochronous graph by taking the constant time section through the creep curves for a specific temperature. And the results obtained formed the isochronous graph. Experimental Procedures 3.1 Equipment for Creep Testing The load was applied steadily to the specimen using the lever principle shown in Figure 3.1.1. Steel pins were used to kept the specimen in place on one side of the lever and the weight hanger on the other. The weight hanger consist of 2 pinning position; the topmost hole was used when the hanger and loads were in rest position while the lower hole was used when the hanger was loaded. The following table shows the mass for the parts of the equipment which should be taken into consideration during the calculation of tensile force on the specimen If m was the mass of the load on the weight hanger, then the tensile force acting on the specimen can be defined by taking moment about pivot as shown in Figure 3.1.2. [(F+0.04) x 42] – [0.40 x 147] – [(0.16 + 0.04 +m) x 336] = 0 (Equation 3.1.1) Where, g is the acceleration due to gravity = 9.807m/s2 The extension of the specimen was measured using a dial gauge (DG). The DG was placed into a tube tightened using a nylon pinch screw to hold the DG in its place. It should be noted that the nylon pinch screw should only be tighten sufficiently to prevent the DG from moving when the loads were placed. The top of the DG was attached to the set up using a grooved plate which was bolted to the lever arm. This arrangement was to ensure the groove in this plate was two times the distance from the pivot to the centre of the specimen. Hence, the extension of the specimen detected by the DG was twice the actual extension of the specimen. And to counter for inaccuracy when zeroing the DG, an additional 3mm was taken into account before the start of the experiment. Thus, the actual extension of the specimen can be calculated by: (Equation 3.1.2) 3.2 Experiment Methods For the measurement of creep in lead, the load applied would be 0.9, 1.0 and 1.1kg. For the measurement of creep in polypropylene, the load applied would be 0.7, 0.8 and 0.9kg. Before conducting the experiment, the width, length, thickness and gauge length of the specimen was measured thrice using an electronic vernier caliper; the readings used for the calculation would be the average reading (highlighted in orange). 3.2.1 Experiment 1: Creep of Lead The lever arm was held in place using 2 pins; 1 of it to be inserted into the bearing block and the other onto the topmost hole of the weight hanger. Attached the specimen onto the set up using 2 pins. Place the Dial Gauge into the hole/tube but do not tighten the nylon screw yet. Attach the groove plate at the top of the Dial Gauge and lever arm and secure it using a thumb nut. Release the pin holding the weight hanger to take up any free movement. Make sure the specimen was placed vertically. Carefully adjust the Dial Gauge until the inner dial reads 3mm and the outer ring reads 0, then tighten the nylon screw. Load the required weight onto the hanger. Raise the loaded weight hanger to the lower hole (loading position) and insert the pin. Gently release the load and start stop watch. Record reading every 15 seconds for 30 minutes or till the specimen ruptures. In order to determine the secondary creep rate for each applied stress, 3 extension-time creep curves were required. The creep rate can be calculated using the following equation: (Equation 3.2.1.1) Where In this experiment, ln vs ln plot was required. Hence, the stress () on the specimen is given by: (Equation 3.2.1.2) Where, F is the load applied to the specimen (N) 3.2.2 Experiment 2: Creep of Polypropylene The test of creep of polypropylene is similar to that of lead, with a couple of exceptions. Before placing the specimen onto the set up, 2 ‘U’ brackets should be fitted over the 2 ends of the specimen. For polypropylene, elastic recovery was possible hence the specimen was not required to be tested until failure. Note that 15 minutes, 12 minutes and 7 minutes were the extension time required for 0.6kg, 0.7kg and 0.8kg respectively Place the required load onto the weight hanger. Record the extension for every 15 seconds for specific duration. After the extension period, remove the weights on the weight hanger and continue to record the reading (elastic recovery phase) every 15 seconds for 10 minutes or when the needle on the Dial Gauge stop moving for 1 minute. Repeat for other loads. Plot extension vs time curve to show the creep and recovery curve. In this experiment, strain vs stress plot was required. Hence, the strain rate () on the specimen is given by: (Equation 3.2.2.1) Where Results Results for Lead The increment of extension () was selected based on the results reflected on Figure 4.1.1. The creep rate (ÃŽÂ ­) of Lead was determine using Equation 3.2.1.1. The stress () applied onto the lead specimen was calculated using Equation 3.2.1.2. By adding ln to the values of and ÃŽÂ ­, Using the data from Table 4.1.1, we can plot a linear graph. Based on Figure 4.1.2, the stress exponent (n) from the straight line was 10.503. Results for Polypropylene A sudden drop was observed for 0.7kg, this was due to human error as results was not recorded promptly on specific time. Using Equation 3.2.1.2 3.2.2.1, the stress and strain rate is shown below: Based on Figure 4.2.1, when stress is constant, the strain increases as time increases, which tallies with the theory. 5. Discussion Usefulness of the Plot of lnÏÆ' vs lnÃŽÂ ­ By plotting lnÏÆ' against lnÃŽÂ ­, we can determine the gradient (n) or the stress exponent of the specimen, which correspond to the controlling mechanism of creep under testing conditions. Stress Exponent for Lead The stress exponent indicates the influence of deformation rate on the mechanical strength of the specimen.[7] At low stresses, n equals to 1, which indicates pure diffusion creep. At high stresses, n > 1, indicating other creeping mechanism besides pure diffusion. Factors affecting the stress exponent value The stress exponent for lead in this experiment was found out to be 10.503. And the factors which affects the value is the type of creeping mechanism behind the specimen. Some creeping mechanisms include Coble creep (Grain boundary diffusion) and Dislocation creep/climb (Power law creep).[8] Creep of Metals in Design Consideration The following are some methods to minimize creeping in metals: Employ materials with high Tm Reduce the effect of grain boundaries by using a single crystal with large grains or adding solid solutions to eliminate vacancies[9] Creep is an important consideration for when a component have to support a load at temperatures where Tabs/TM > 0.4.[10] For high temperature, creep is an important consideration in these three areas: Displacement-limited applications such as turbine rotors in jet engines Rupture-limited applications such as high pressure steam pipes Stress Relaxation limited applications such as tightened bolts and suspended cables [11] Viscoelastic Behaviour Materials which exhibits both viscous and elastic property during deformation is known as viscoelasticity.[12] In this experiment, both lead and polypropylene exhibits viscoelasticity to different extend. For lead, the time taken in which the specimen rupture decreases as the stress increases. However, its viscoelasticity is not high hence, its recovery phase is not as significant as polypropylene. Furthermore, the structure of lead is more crystalline than polypropylene, which means it is more brittle and more prone to rupture. For polypropylene, the extension increases as the stress increases. The extension and recovery rate of each load are as follow: Recovery rate is possible on polypropylene specimen because it has higher elasticity due to its amorphous structure. The amorphous structure untangles and lengthens out until it becomes crystalline. Conclusion In conclusion, the results obtained from the experiment is true to theory. Unfortunately, during the creep test for lead, some results are missing due to some human error resulting in an incomplete graph as depicted in Figure 4.2.1. For the creep in lead, load 1.0kg and 1.1kg rupture before 30 minutes. This shows that the heavier the load, the faster the creep rate. At even high temperature, t

DVD Technology Essay

It is truly a fact that we are living in this modern world which all technologies are advanced and improved. One of these technologies is in the DVD technology. Before, we normally used CDs as main novelty to the PC’s world but now, DVD is more used and preferred by multitudes of masses due to its admirable features which the CD doesn’t have. DVD was formerly represented as Digital Video Disc but then changed into Digital Versatile Disc and is considered as the next generation of the optical disc storage technology which is predicted and awaited to quickly substitute the CD-ROM disc along with audio compact disc around the following several years. DVD contains 4. 7 information’s gigabytes on one of its both sides or sufficient for a 133-minute movie. Having two layers on every of its both sides, it will keep up to 17 gigabytes of audio, video and other data. DVD-Video is the typical term for the DVD format designed for full-length motion pictures and which will drive with our television set. The DVD-ROM keeps computer information and is read through a DVD-ROM drive which is connected to a computer, the DVD-RAM is the writeable version while the DVD-Audio is a player which is designed to substitute our compact disc player (see Bellis, Mary. â€Å"DVD†. http://inventors. about. com/library/inventors/bldvd. htm). A DVD with correctly structured and formatted video substance is a DVD-Video. The DVDs with correct structured and formatted audio are termed as DVD-Audio discs. And everything as well is named as a DVD-Data disc as well as the other types of DVD discs which have video (Wikipedia, free encyclopedia. August 27, 2006). The purposes of this study are to: (1) know the history of DVD technology; and (2) be acquainted with its useful features and its functions; and how it is being distinct from CD. History The invention of DVD was all started in early of 1990s which two high-density optical storage standards were being technology advanced: the first one was the MultiMedia Compact Disc which was supported by Sony and Philips; and the second one was the Super Density disc which was approved and accepted by Time-Warner, Hitachi, Pioneer, JVC, Mitsubishi Electric, Toshiba, Thomson, and Matsushita Electric. The IBM president named Lou Gertsner has exerted an effort to join and bring together the two companies to back up solitary standard, getting ahead a repeat of the expensive and inflated format war amongst Betamax and VHS in 1980s (Wikipedia, free encyclopedia. August 27, 2006). In 1994 of May, Philips and Sony promulgated that they would be willingly and jointly develop a newfangled high-density medium popularly known as Digital Video Disc or DVD. This new technology was considered as the successor to compact discs or CD-ROM for computers and substitute laserdiscs and VHS tapes in the amusement industry. Just like a CD, DVD discs have similar diameter-about 120mm and thickness is about 1. 2 mm- just as Compact disc has but DVD is more advance and useful due to its capability to use both discs’ sides for data storage. The large video games which need and require a number of CDs would merely necessitate only one DVD disc. Later on, newfangled technology’s development instantaneously induced dilemmas of a political nature. The Warner Home Entertainment and Toshiba declared their own project to work out the same but yet precisely distinct from DVD technology at the same time. Associations like the Hollywood Digital Video Disc Advisory Group had a sensible and rational interest in this technology’s development. Movie suppliers started to stir up disagreements and controversies which concern the essential of copy protections in the DVD requirement and description. But then, Sony was the first to display its DVD technology. In 1995, John Eargle explained and illustrated the presentation which was conducted at the Winter Consumer Electronics Show. In his writings entitled â€Å"The Great DVD debate† stated that: â€Å"its color and sharpness was more than a match for the Laserdisc â€Å". But Eargle’s attention was on the technological requirements which had been formally and legitimately promulgated in December of the same year. The DVD’s intensification and enlargement data density was credited to a laser of a color advanced in the light spectrum and a technology that were being technologically advanced with 3M which permit the laser to be focus again to one second â€Å"layer† in the disc. It has a double-layer disc which amplifies the volume and dimensions to 7. 4 gigabytes. Throughout the spring of 1995, the disagreement of both developers had been stimulated through Toshiba’s personal growth and advancement of a two-layer disc named as SD or Super density (Chapin, R. â€Å"History of DVD†). DVD recordable and rewritable DVD recordable and DVD rewritable denote to DVD optical disc formats which can be â€Å"burned† either rewritable or write once format. DVD recordable is an overall name which denotes to both rewritable and writes-once formats, while DVD writable denotes solely to rewritable formats. The DVD promoted and marketed as 4. 7 GB might seem to keep not more than that for the reason that manufacturers quote the volume of a writable DVD disc utilizing decimal prefixes instead of the binary prefixes utilized by number of software. On the other hand, a 4. 7 GB DVD can be able to accumulate 4. 7 billion bytes, utilizing the binary prefixes which has similar capacity is approximately 4. 38 GiB (Wikipedia, free encyclopedia. August 18, 2006). Dual Layer Recording Dual Layer recoding permits DVD-R and DVD+R discs to accumulate and put in storage extensively more info or data which is capable of 8. 5 Gigabytes per disc, when contrasted with 4. 7 Gigabytes designed for single-layer discs. The DVD-R DL or â€Å"dual layer† was technologically advanced for the DVD Forum by the Pioneer Corporation while the DVD+R DL or â€Å"dual layer† was technologically advanced intended for the DVD+RW Alliance by Sony. Below are the two figures of DVD-R DL and DVD+R DL (Wikipedia, free encyclopedia. August 28, 2006). Figure of DVD-R DL Double Layer DVD+R Its Restrictions The DVD-Video includes four corresponding systems designed to limit and constraint the DVD user in a variety of procedures and these are the Content Scrambling System, Region codes, disabled user operations (UOP) and Macrovision. *Content Scrambling System* > It is a Digital Rights Management or DRM plan make used on various DVDs. It make uses a weak, proprietary 40 bit stream cipher algorithm which has successively been compromised. It was in 1996 that the system was presented and established (wikipedia, free encyclopedia. August 26, 2006). *Region Codes* > it is the programming practice, chip, physical barrier, or code which is make used to stop or block the playing media designed for a device which comes from a place where it is introduced and distributed on the version of similar device distributed in another place. It is a kind of a form of vendor lock-in (Wikipedia, free encyclopedia. August 26, 2006). *Disabled User Operations* > DVD-Video permits the disc to identify or indicate whether or not the handler may carry out any operation like skipping chapters, rewinding or forwarding, selecting a menu which is fundamentally any function on the remote control. This system is named as Prohibited User Operations or User Operation Prohibitions. *Macrovision* > It is a company which makes electronic prevention plans and was established in 1963. The term is occasionally used to denote to specific video copy prevention plans which were technologically advanced by the company. Its features Some of the DVDs main features are: (1) copy protection built into standard; (2) DVD-ROM for improved multimedia and games applications; (3) every format uses a common file system; (4) DVD-Audio for advanced quality music, graphics and other features and surround sound and optical video and many others; (5) Backwards compatibility with current CD media and many others (see DVD (Digital Versatile Disk)†. http://www. usbyte. com/common/dvd. htm#Introduction). Hence, DVD it is widely used now globally. ______________________________________________________________________________ References: 1. Bellis, Mary. â€Å"DVD†. http://inventors. about. com/library/inventors/bldvd. htm) 2. †DVD†. August 28, 2006. http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/DVD 3. Chapin, R. â€Å"History of DVD†. http://www. miqrogroove. com/writing/History%20of%20DVD. html 4. â€Å"DVD recordable†. Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. August 18, 2006http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/DVD_recordable 5. â€Å"Content Scramble System†. August 26, 2006. http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Content_Scrambling_System 6. â€Å"DVD (Digital Versatile Disk)†. http://www. usbyte. com/common/dvd. htm#Introduction

Caffeine C and E

What Do I Get From My Morning Coffee Some people are morning people, but I am not one of those people. Every morning it seems as if I am in a fog until that warm cup of coffee touches my lips. Similar to a drug habit, the more a person drinks coffee, the more it seems like that person cant function without it. But what are you really getting from your coffee? Along with other factors, coffee can have both positive and negative effects on your health. Coffee improves the bodys tolerance to glucose by increasing metabolism or mproving its tolerance to insulin.People who drink four cups of caffeinated coffee each day had shown to be 56 percent less likely to develop diabetes than were non- drinkers. Diabetes is the most common risk factor of liver cancer, so American adults may have something to celebrate as they sip their morning cup. A study of one hundred twenty-four older adults, ages sixty-five to eighty-eight, with mild cognitive impairment found that caffeine and coffee intake wa s associated with a reduced risk f developing Dementia and early onset Alzheimer's.Coffee is known to be problematic for acid reflux and heartburn. Acid reflux and heartburn can be caused by coffee due to the way it relaxes the lower esophageal sphincter (muscle that closes the airway). This small muscle should remain tightly closed to prevent the contents of your stomach from coming back up into the esophagus and burning its lining with hydrochloric acid. Drinking a lot of coffee will promote the release of the stress hormones cortisol and epinephrine.These hemicals increase your bodys heart rate, blood pressure and tension levels – the old fight or flight' response. All of this depends on how much coffee and caffeine your body can handle at one time. Although your shoe size isn't a factor that affects coffee, there are a number of other things that do, these include: your age, gender, how long you have drinkin coffee, and what kind of coffee you drink. Some studies show tha t drinking decaffeinated coffee does not have the same effects of drinking regular coffee. So it might Just be time to switch that morning cup.

Essay on Should High School Students Join the Military

Less than one percent of all Americans are enlisted in the military. An even smaller percentage of high school students are enlisted in the military. Students are thought to be incompetent, and not mature enough to decide on enlisting in the military. However, students should be allowed to join the military. The military offers many benefits students can use to help their future. The protection of our country is not overlooked for recruits; they are awarded many personal benefits as well. Tuition assistance, job training, and many benefits that help prepare recruits for occupations while enlisted. Not only are students getting great benefits, but they are also in a small group of professional workers. High School Students should be allowed†¦show more content†¦After the courses are completed, the individual goes straight to the military for the branch, as an officer, he enrolled in. He also are given many different allowances. The allowances given are usually a housing allowance and a food allowance, depending on the region the individual is attending college. He also gets his tuition paid for, as well as money for books and monthly spending allowance (Yuengling). Worrying about college can be avoided from joining the military. The military even pays for children of veterans and active duty soldiers. Through the military an individual may be relieved, because of all the educational benefits provided for him. The military can help fuel the future of any soldier who wants the benefits. Education is not the only benefit that comes from service in the military. When many people first join, they are assigned MOSs. MOSs are jobs assigned to someone when they first join (Nance). Each MOS is specific and is usually related to the field an individual is interested in. He is sent to training immediately after basic training. Each branch of the military has different jobs, depending on what is available. Jobs can range from being a dentist to becoming a lawyer, but each has its own school for the individual to go to. He is housed in apartment complexes paid for by the government. Many companies and firms look for military veterans, because of the fact they are so well trained (Kingsbury). While in basicShow MoreRelatedShould High School Students Join the Military? Essay952 Words   |  4 PagesLess than one percent of all Americans are enlisted in the military. An even smaller percentage of high school students are enlisted. Students are thought to be incompetent, and no t mature enough to decide on enlisting in the military. However, students should be allowed to join the military. The military offers many benefits students can use to help their future. The protection of our country is not overlooked for recruits; they are awarded many personal benefits as well. Tuition assistance, jobRead MoreMilitary Recruiters in School. Why Not? 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